约翰·洛克 发表评论(0) 编辑词条

　　约翰·洛克（John Locke，1632.8.29-1704.10.28）是英国“光荣革命”时期著名的思想家和唯物主义哲学家及经济学家、经验主义的开创人，同时也是第一个全面阐述宪政民主思想的人，在哲学以及政治领域都有重要影响。

　　洛克于1632年出生于英国，从小受到严格的教育。清教徒的父亲在内战期间为议会军队而战。1646年洛克在威斯敏斯特学校接受了传统的古典文学基础训练。1652年克伦威尔主政期间，洛克到牛津大学学习，并在那儿居住了15年。1656年洛克获得学士学位，1658年获硕士学位。后来他还担任过牛津大学的希腊语和哲学老师。在牛津期间洛克对当时盛行于校园内的经院哲学不感兴趣，反而比较喜欢勒内·笛卡尔（Rene Descartes）的哲学以及自然科学。他在36岁时曾被入选英国皇家学会。也正是由于洛克的哲学观点不受欢迎，他最后决定从事医学研究。这一时期洛克还结识了著名的化学家罗伯特·波义耳。

　　1666年洛克遇到了莎夫茨伯里伯爵，并成为伯爵的好友兼助手。在此期间洛克开始了其一生最重要的哲学著作《人类理解论》(Essay Concerning Human Understanding)的创作。

　　1675年洛克离开英国到法国住了三年，结识很多重要的思想家，后来又回到伯爵身边担任秘书。1682年莎夫茨伯里伯爵因卷入一次失败的叛乱而逃往荷兰，洛克也随行。伯爵在翌年去世，而洛克则在荷兰一直呆到1688年的光荣革命。在荷兰期间洛克隐姓埋名，并且完成了包括《人类理解论》在内的多部重要著作。

　　1688年洛克返回伦敦，并在次年写了两篇十分重要的政治论文。

　　1689年，英国发生“光荣革命”，洛克任贸易和殖民地事务大臣。

　　他的《人类理解论》也在1690年发表。晚年的洛克大部分的精力都投注在《人类理解论》这部书上，不过此时也认识了包括艾萨克·牛顿在内的几位科学家。洛克终身未娶，在1704年溘然长逝。

　　洛克是不列颠经验主义的开创者，虽然他本人并没有完全贯彻这种哲学思想。洛克认为人类所有的思想和观念都来自或反映了人类的感官经验。他抛弃了笛卡尔等人的天赋观念说，而认为人的心灵开始时就像一张白纸，而向它提供精神内容的是经验（即他所谓的观念）。观念分为两种：感觉(sensation)的观念和反思(reflection)的观念。感觉来源于感官感受外部世界，而反思则来自于心灵观察本身。与理性主义者不同的是，洛克强调这两种观念是知识的唯一来源。洛克还将观念划分为简单观念和复杂观念，不过并没有提供合适的区分标准。我们唯一能感知的是简单观念，而我们自己从许多简单观念中能够形成一个复杂观念。

　　洛克还主张感官的性质可分为“主性质”和“次性质”。洛克相信世界是由物质构成的，物质的主性质包括了形状、运动或静止、数目等和物质不可分离的那些性质，而次性质则包括了颜色、声音、气味等其他各种性质。洛克认为主性质就在物体里，次性质只在知觉者中。在这问题上洛克是追随笛卡尔的二元论学说，同意有些性质是可以用人的理智来了解的。

　　洛克的哲学思想虽然并没有一贯性（20世纪另外一名英国哲学家伯特兰·罗素曾经批评洛克以“零碎的方式处理哲学问题”），且有很多漏洞，不过却对后来的哲学家起到很大的影响。洛克开创的经验主义被后来的乔治·贝克莱以及大卫·休谟等人继续发展，成为欧洲的两大主流哲学思想。

　　虽然在哲学上洛克成就十分重要，不过他在政治及政治学说上的影响恐怕对后人更为巨大。洛克是第一个系统阐述宪政民主政治以及提倡人的“自然权利”的人，他主张要捍卫人的生命、自由和财产权。他的政治理念也深远地影响了美国、法国、英国以及其他的西方国家。

　　1689到1690年写成的两篇《政府论》是洛克最重要的政治论文。第一篇是对罗伯特·费尔默爵士的《先祖论即论国王之自然权》的反驳。洛克极力并有效地驳斥了费尔默的君权神授的主张。在第二篇中洛克主张统治者的权力应来自于被统治者的同意，建立国家的唯一目的，乃是为了保障社会的安全以及人民的自然权利。当政府的所作所为与这一目的相违背的时候，人民就有权利采取行动甚至以暴力的方式将权力收回。洛克也支持社会契约论。不过他也强调社会契约论是可以废除的。他也认为每一个人都是平等的，在一个人没有损害另一人利益的情况下可以自行其事。他也提倡个人财产的合理性，认为个人有权拥有通过劳动所获得的合法财产。洛克提出的人所拥有的“自然权利”(natural rights)就包括了生存的权利，享有自由的权利以及财产权。洛克还第一个倡导了权力的分配，他把政治权力分为立法权、行政权和外交权三种，认为行立法机关应当高于行政机关，防止专政。这方面的理论由后来的法国哲学家孟德斯鸠(Montesquieu)继续发展，并对美国的三权分立制政体产生了一定的影响。

　　洛克的政治思想对后来的政治发展起到了极大的作用。洛克的自由主义被美国奉为神圣，成为民族理想。他的思想深深影响了托马斯·杰弗逊等美国政治家，并且在美洲引发了一场轰轰烈烈的革命浪潮。洛克的影响在法国则更为激烈。伏尔泰是第一个将洛克等人的思想传到法国去的人，法国后来的启蒙运动乃至法国大革命都与洛克的思想不无关系。

　　1692年，约翰·洛克（John Locke）在其《论降低利息和提高货币价值的后果》及1695年《再论提高货币价值》等著作中，发展了霍布斯的税收益交换说，认为税收是人民从国家取得利益所缴纳的报酬，或人民财产得到保护而向政府付出的代价。政府的主要职能在于保护私有财产，政府没有充足的经费就不能维持。凡享受保护的人都应该从他的产业中支出他的一份来维持政府。洛克认为，政府只能站在议会赞助权的立场上，按照法律规定的赋税条例行使课税权。洛克的这一思想，无疑是对封建的君权神授论的勇敢挑战，是对封建国家专利课税、横征暴敛的有力鞭笞。同时，它也为近代西方国家立宪依法征税提供了理论基础。

• 《论宽容》1666

• 《政府论》1685

• 《人类理解论》1690

• 《关于教育的思想》1693

• 《圣经中体现出来的基督教的合理性》1695

Philosopher, son of a landsteward, was born at Wrington, near Bristol, and ed. at Westminster School and Oxford In 1660 he became lecturer on Greek, in 1662 on Rhetoric, and in 1664 he went as secretary to an Embassy to Brandenburg. While a student he had turned from the subtleties of Aristotle and the schoolmen, had studied Descartes and Bacon, and becoming attracted to experimental science, studied medicine, and practised a little in Oxford At the same time his mind had been much exercised by questions of morals and government, and in 1667 he wrote his Essay on Toleration. In the same year he became known to Lord Ashley (afterwards 1st Earl of Shaftesbury), in whose house he went to reside. Here he made the acquaintance of Buckingham, Halifax, and other leading men of the time, and was entrusted by Ashley with the education of his son, and afterwards of his grandson, the famous 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury (q.v.). He was also employed by him to draw up a constitution for the new colony of Carolina, the provisions of which in regard to religion were regarded as too liberal and were, at the instance of the Established Church, departed from. In 1672 when Ashley became Chancellor he bestowed upon Locke the office of Sec. of Presentations, and afterwards a post at the Board of Trade. In 1675 Locke graduated M.B., and in the same year went for the benefit of his health, which had always been delicate, to Montpelier, where there was then a celebrated medical school, and subsequently to Paris, where he became acquainted with most of the eminent Frenchmen of the day. Recalled by Shaftesbury in 1679 he returned to England but, his patron having in 1682 been obliged to take refuge in Holland from a prosecution for high treason, he followed him there. In consequence of this he became obnoxious to the Government, and was in 1684 deprived of his studentship at Christ Church. Shaftesbury having died in Holland, Locke remained there until the Revolution, when he returned to England in the fleet which carried the Princess of Orange. He was now in favour with Government, and had the offer of diplomatic employment which, on account of his health, he declined, but was appointed a Commissioner of Appeals. In 1698 he was an adviser of the Government on the question of the coinage, and was made a member of the newly instituted Council on Trade, which position he resigned in 1700. During his last years he lived with Sir Francis and Lady Masham at Gates in Essex, where Lady M., who was a daughter of Ralph Cudworth (q.v.), and an old friend, assiduously tended his last years. The services of Locke to his country in civil and religious matters were various and great; but it is upon his philosophical writings, and chiefly on his Essay on the Human Understanding (1690) that his fame rests. It is divided into four books, of which the first treats of innate ideas (the existence of which he denies), the second traces the origin of ideas, the third deals with language, and the fourth lays down the limits of the understanding. Other works of his are Thoughts concerning Education (1693), On the Conduct of the Understanding (published posthumously), The Reasonableness of Christianity (1695), Treatise on Government, and Letters on Toleration.

If not a very profound or original philosopher Locke was a calm, sensible, and reasonable writer, and his books were very influential on the English thought of his day, as well as on the French philosophy of the next century. His style is plain and clear, but lacking in brightness and variety.

[From A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature by John W. Cousin, 1910]